6 An Emerging Awareness of the Role Organizational Culture and Management Style Can Play in Triggering Workplace Violence

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1 6 An Emerging Awareness of the Role Organizational Culture and Management Style Can Play in Triggering Workplace Violence Vaughan owie I) ackground Workplace violence (WPV) gradually became an issue of concern during the 1960s mainly in the form of intruders robbing and assaulting staff. In the 1970s violence among healthcare workers, mainly nurses, became an issue. Since the 1960s there have been many attempts to develop typologies that can encompass the possible range of violence experienced in work settings. More recently the role of organizations in minimizing or accelerating WPV has been identified. 1 5 However, many of the most well known typologies minimize or omit such organizational violence aspects. Most current International Health and Safety legislation, guidelines, and fact sheets still continue to focus almost exclusively on interpersonal types of external and internal violence in the workplace and omit any mention of organizational violence. For example, the most recent guidelines from WorkCover Australia, 6 a regulatory government agency, makes limited reference to the interaction between the many types of WPV and the management practices. Similarly, the ritish document, A Safer Place To Work, makes no direct reference to the impact of organizational culture and management style on WPV. 7 The International Labour Organisation has developed the following definition of workplace violence: Any action, incident or behaviour that departs from reasonable conduct in which a person is assaulted, threatened, harmed, injured in the course of, or as a direct result of, his or her work. Internal workplace violence is that which takes place between workers, including managers and supervisors. External workplace violence is that which takes place between workers (and managers and supervisors) and any other person present at the workplace. 8 Useful as this definition is, it is defined in terms of the individual s experience, does not address issues of intent or the target s perception of the incident, lacks an understanding of the group or organizational aspect of such violence, is silent on issues of power imbalances that may lead to workplace violence, and lacks definition of what is considered to be reasonable conduct. Another well known typology is that of The World Health Organization (WHO), which defines violence as: _CH06_Privitera.indd 1 1/26/2010 8:04:56 PM

2 2 Chapter 6: An Emerging Awareness of the Role Organizational Culture The intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, that either results in or has the likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal-development or deprivation. 9 Here the use of the word power broadens the definition of a violent act to include those acts that result from power imbalance including threats and intimidation. The mention of power in this definition may also include acts of omission such as neglect, as well as acts of commission including all types of psychological, physical, and sexual abuse. Additionally, this typology doesn t identify the role that organizations can play in influencing the type and level of violence experienced within the workplace. Another widely used classification is the workplace typology developed by the Californian Occupational Safety and Health Administration (Cal/OSHA). 10 This model is probably the most generally accepted one in current legal, occupational health and safety, criminology, and security circles within North America. This original schema identifies three types of workplace violence that owie has titled intrusive, consumer related, and relationship violence. 11 Leather, et al. outlined this typology as follows: Here, three broad categories of workplace violence are identified: Type I, planned robberies, where the assailant has no legitimate relationship to the workplace and the main object of the attack is cash or valuable property; Type II, events involving assault by someone who is either the recipient of the object of a service provided by the affected workplace or the victim; and Type III, incidents involving assault by another employee, a supervisor, or an acquaintance of the worker. 12 This typology does not recognize the place of power and organizational culture and management style in influencing work-based violence. Hearn and Parkin, 3 owie, 11,13 Engel, 14 McCarthy and Mayhew, 5 and others have further expanded this Cal/OSHA typology to include the direct role that organizations can play in allowing and stimulating WPV. The main emphasis of this chapter is on the organizational violence aspect of workplace violence. In light of the preceding analysis, a number of additional types of workplace violence have thus far been omitted from existing typologies. Therefore, there is a need for a new expanded typology, based on the existing Cal/OSHA classifications, to be developed that includes the categories outlined in Table 6-1. owie further developed a definition of WPV as that of a perceived or actual verbal abuse, emotional threat, physical attack, or misuse of power upon an individual s person or property, or against a work group or organization while undertaking work-related duties by another individual, group, or organization. 13,15 16 This definition of workplace violence is also reflected in the preceding typology. II) Expanding the Typology of Workplace Violence The typology of owie 11 differs from Cal/OSHA in two main ways. owie combines Cal/OSHA Types II and III and then adds another type that of organizational violence. (See Chapter 1 and Chapter 7.) 58653_CH06_Privitera.indd 2 1/26/2010 8:04:56 PM

3 II) Expanding the Typology of Workplace Violence 3 Table 6-1 Expanded Workplace Violence Typology Type 1 External/Intrusive violence Criminal intent by strangers Terrorist acts including sabotage and kidnappings Protest violence Mentally illness or drug related aggression Random violence Type 2 Consumer related violence Consumer/clients/patients (& family) violence against staff Vicarious trauma to staff Staff violence against clients/consumers including terrorist acts Type 3 Staff Related violence Staff on staff violence & bullying including terrorist acts Domestic violence and sexual harassment at work Third party violence Type 4 Organisational violence Organisational violence against staff Organisational violence against consumers / clients / patients. Organisational violence against other organisations or communities Organizationally condoned or sponsored terrorist acts. More details about these additional categories and justification for these new inclusions within this typology are outlined as follows. Type 1: External/Intrusive Violence The initial common perception of WPV was mainly around high-profile incidents of staff traumatized by external robberies and assaults by strangers. However, there are other less frequent but equally important types of this violence that also need to be part of a comprehensive awareness of intrusive violence. These include criminal intent by strangers, terrorist acts including sabotage and kidnappings, protest violence, mental illness or drug related aggression, and random violence. Obviously these categories are not mutually exclusive and an external intrusive act of workplace violence may include a number of these types in the one act. Type 2: Consumer/Patient Related Violence This type of violence arises out of some type of interaction between employees and patients or their friends or family. The most widely recognized aspect of Type 2 violence involves aggressive acts by patients against the staff of a health service. This type of WPV has already received much attention from academics, practitioners, and occupational health and safety professionals. However, Type 2 violence should also be expanded to include at least two other types of violence. These are vicarious trauma experienced by employees and staff violence against those they are supposed to be serving _CH06_Privitera.indd 3 1/26/2010 8:04:56 PM

4 4 Chapter 6: An Emerging Awareness of the Role Organizational Culture In some instances an employee s ability to deal with patients who have been traumatized and acting out violently may be reduced by lack of organizational support and resources. Thus the employee s traumatization may be at least partly due to the organization itself. Staff who abuse patients with aggression and neglect may be affected by organizational decisions and practices that decrease employees emotional strength, not just as a result of individual personality flaws. Such organizational decisions may directly effect work satisfaction, financial stress, and physical and emotional fatigue, which in turn contribute to substance abuse and domestic problems. All of these influence the development, maintenance, or loss of staff s emotional immunity. 17,20 Type 3: Staff Relationship Violence Staff-on-Staff Violence and ullying It was first recognized during the 1970s and 1980s, that in some situations staff themselves were the instigators of aggression and violence against other staff through bullying and harassment. This phenomena was probably first investigated systematically amongst nurses and was referred to as horizontal violence. 21 Rylance, in a survey of Australian helping professionals (mainly social workers), notes:... firstly, that workers in the helping professions can behave abusively to each other. Secondly, they highlight the fact that such abusive behaviour from fellow colleagues is an issue that requires addressing in addition to abuse from clients. Thirdly, they suggest that abuse in organisations employing social service workers could be detrimental to clients... the majority of respondents reported experiencing greater levels of abuse from people within their organisation than from service users. 22 In this historical context, there has been growing interest and concern in western countries about workplace bullying. 5,19,23 24 In the European context, group bullying is called mobbing. Such individual and group violence is not particularly new but seems to be growing in the current economic rationalist climate of decreasing job security, individual work contracts, massive retrenchments, and expanding unemployment that pits workers and unions against employers and other workers. Sexual Harassment and Domestic Violence at Work A related key issue raised by Santana and Fisher, 25 Mayhew, 26 Hopkins, 27 and others is the relationship between gender and the experience of types of WPV. This gender relationship could extend to Types 1, 2, and 3 workplace violence. 27 McCarthy and Mayhew 5 identify bullying and sexual harassment as forms of workplace violence, as do Hearn and Parkin. 3 Domestic violence spilling over into the workplace is an increasing concern that needs to be built into any comprehensive workplace violence typology and response strategy _CH06_Privitera.indd 4 1/26/2010 8:04:56 PM

5 II) Expanding the Typology of Workplace Violence 5 Third Party Violence There is also another type of indirect bullying and violence that needs to be identified and addressed, that of third party, observer, or bystander violence. 14 Hockley refers to third party violence that occurs when others closest to the primary target, such as colleagues or family, witness or experience the aftermath of bullying and/or trauma of someone they have some type of relationship with. 28 Third party violence, like domestic violence at work, is not yet taken very seriously as an important aspect of Type 3 relationship violence. Thus, there is a need for workplace bullying and its various manifestations to be taken much more seriously and for the gendered nature of these interactions to be more closely researched. Any comprehensive response to workplace violence and bullying needs to incorporate insights about its gendered nature gained from such current and future investigation. Type 4: Organizational Violence Many researchers refer to the growing awareness of the role some organizations play in creating an oppressive and violent climate that may in turn trigger violence between staff, by patients, and external intruders. 1 3,5,11,16,28 30 Type 4 violence involves organizations knowingly and unnecessarily placing their workers or clients in dangerous or violent situations or allowing a climate of abuse, bullying, or harassment to thrive in the workplace. Such a climate can also include the threat or reality of downsizing or layoffs. Organizational violence may also spill over into surrounding communities or lead to attacks on other organizations through hostile takeovers or unethical competitive practices. (See Chapter 24.) This phenomena is referred to in the research literature by a number of names including structural violence, systemic violence or abuse, 5 institutional abuse/violence, 28 or organizational violation. 3 Such terminology tends to refer to closed institutions such as psychiatric hospitals, prisons, and children s homes. However, they could equally apply in some senses to supposedly open institutions such as the public services, businesses, and multinational corporations. This neglected area, the interaction between organizational cultures, management styles, and workplace violence, is the focus of this chapter. Such oppressive organizational cultures may come in many forms autocratic management, unreasonable workloads, takeovers, downsizing and retrenchments, reduced benefits and conditions, or individual work contracts. Such violence-prone organizations display certain characteristics that may include Chronic worker/management conflict, an aggressive and authoritarian management style, inconsistent application of staff management policies, ineffective vertical and horizontal communication, inconsistent action and decisions by senior management, ineffective grievance procedures, perceived unjust treatment of employees, lack of mutual respect among separate work teams and departments, ethnic tensions, increased workloads with diminishing resources and rewards, and poor working conditions and security. All of these generate a work culture that tolerates and stimulates occupational violence _CH06_Privitera.indd 5 1/26/2010 8:04:56 PM

6 6 Chapter 6: An Emerging Awareness of the Role Organizational Culture Southerland uses evocative language describing such organizations as murderers knowingly putting employees in risky situations without making them aware of the potentially lethal situations or doing anything to protect them. 33 MacCarthy also expresses these trends in equally graphic terms. The widespread exercise of economic rationalism through the restructuring in these conditions does have the potential to carry forward a kind of ritual sacrificial violence, with the ongoing offering up, through downsizing, of those deemed less useful to the venture. 23 The full realization of the role organizations play in stimulating such workplace violence has continued to be hindered by the current focus on the personality or pathology of the individual worker, patient, or intruder as the main contributor to WPV. On the other hand, it could be argued that to varying extents the organizational culture and management style can have a direct contributory effect on the types of violence experienced by employees, colleagues, and patients. Therefore it is important that what first appears to be Types 1 3 workplace violence be carefully examined to identify the possible contribution of organizational factors to such incidents. Such direct links may be hard to identify and even more difficult to resolve, it is not sufficient to blame intruders, patients, or staff for the levels of violence experienced within organizations. There is, of course, an inherent dilemma in this kind of analysis as many organizations will support violence prevention programs until it is recognized that a core contributor to violence at work emanates from the organization itself. Though no type of workplace violence is acceptable, of particular concern is a potential increase in Type 4 violence that of organizational violence partly fueled by economic rationalism. The catastrophic social and economic damage of such organizational assaults on the wellbeing of workers, their families, the community, and the health and welfare services has yet to be fully experienced or understood. III) Interaction etween Violence Types Possible Links between Types 1 3 and Type 4 Organizational Violence We shall examine the possible links between Type 4 organizational violence and the other Types, 1 3. The focus here is that much of the WPV that occurs in the workplace is linked directly or indirectly with the organization s culture and management style. If the style and culture is of an abusive type, this ethos can trickle down and permeate the rest of the organization triggering aggressive and violent incidents down the line. Thus, there can be a trickle-down effect of Type 4 violence that may stimulate other types of workplace violence. Therefore it could be suggested that a positive management culture could be part of minimizing the impact of internal and external violence upon organizations. In the light of such links recent approaches to prediction and the prevention of WPV have tended to focus more on the characteristics of work teams and organizations that may make them more violence-prone rather than the characteristics of the particular offender Such 58653_CH06_Privitera.indd 6 1/26/2010 8:04:56 PM

7 III) Interaction etween Violence Types 7 organizational characteristics, noted by aron 38 and others, are often a more accurate indicator of the potential for workplace violence than profiling and associated individual focused strategies. The following outlines examples of how the trickle-down effect of Type 4 organizational culture of violence can stimulate further violence of Types Such links are outlined to illustrate the core need to minimize Type 4 organizational violence first, wherever possible, in order to prevent this trickle-down effect. In such scenarios the effect of organizational violence may lead to Types 1 3 workplace violence which are in turn seen as the cause rather than a reaction to organizational culture and management style. Of course this may not always be the case as there may be other reasons why Types 1 3 workplace violence occurs, however, the organization itself should be first examined as a contributing factor rather than only when all other possible factors have been eliminated. Type 1 and Type 4 Interaction As previously outlined, Type 1 violence is external/intrusive violence, often of a criminal nature, that intrudes into the workplace. Type 1 violence can include the following: Criminal intent by strangers Terrorist acts Protest violence Mental illness or drug-related aggression Random violence As an example of such a possible link, Gill marshals some interesting evidence to support the proposition that some crimes committed within the workplace (Type 1) may be stimulated by a poor or abusive organizational culture (Type 4). 39 Such a link could be illustrated in the following scenario: Staff who are themselves poorly trained, under stress, and feeling devalued due to type 4 organizational violence may create actively or by neglect an environment that makes it easier for external assailants to gain access to the organization or to capitalize on perceived weaknesses in the organization s security. Devalued staff may also collude directly or indirectly with such external assailants in Type 1 violence. What may appear at first as an organization being hit by a crime wave from external sources could partly be the result of devalued staff becoming less safety conscious or even colluding with outsiders to commit crimes if they feel no longer valued by their organization. There may also be a link between Type 4 violence and other types of external violence such as terrorism or protest violence. Though this link is less clear compared with that of external criminal violence it is a possibility that the company s policies and processes, especially those of multinationals, may alienate certain ethnic, religious, or protest groups and lead to violent action against these organizations from external sources such as reactive terrorism _CH06_Privitera.indd 7

8 8 Chapter 6: An Emerging Awareness of the Role Organizational Culture Type 2 and Type 4 Interaction Three main types of Type 2 violence have been so far identified: Patients, friends, and family violence against staff Vicarious trauma to staff Staff violence, including terrorist incidents, to patients/consumers Let us now look at each of these in turn and their possible relationship with organizational violence. Patients, family, and friends violence against staff It is easy to focus on the patients as being the source of the violence but the factors that have triggered this such as staff cuts, longer waiting times, or decreased services may be the result of organizational or societal decisions and priorities. Thus, what may appear as an increase in patient violence against staff or a service may, in fact, be a reflection of growing frustration and desperation by service users who are faced by increasing cutbacks, diminishing services, or more strict eligibility criteria due to organizational decisions. 40 Thus the patients natural frustration and resentment at such cutbacks should not be the only focus of violence management strategies but also addressing organizational culpability for creating or allowing an environment that stimulates such negative reactions. Vicarious trauma to staff Some staff may have to deal with patients who have a history of committing violence and who in turn have been severely abused, leading to a double whammy of both fear and empathy within the worker. Vicarious trauma to staff from dealing with such patients may be exacerbated by organizational decisions and procedures effecting both service users and providers. Staff may be burnt out in trying to deal with rising dissatisfaction of service users as well as having fewer resources to undertake their required functions. Also in a rather different and more subtle way staff may also experience vicarious trauma from organizations high expectations of their staff to cope with all that they experience and to go the extra mile to provide service to particularly difficult groups of consumers. Thus individual burnout and vicarious trauma experienced by workers may have more to do with the organization s culture and expectations than with the personal pathology or limitations of workers or patients. Staff violence to patients Conlin Shaw lays much of the blame for abuse and neglect by staff on patients on the financially-driven medical model with productivity and efficiency as its primary goals that make it difficult for staff to develop and maintain the necessary psychological immunity. 20 As this immunity is eroded over time, staff may react to patient actions or demands in a reactive and abusive manner. Again it is not sufficient to just focus on individual dynamics of clients and staff when examining Type 2 violence at work but such dynamics also need to be considered within the broader context of possible organizational triggers _CH06_Privitera.indd 8

9 III) Interaction etween Violence Types 9 Type 3 and Type 4 Interaction Type 3 relationship violence includes: Staff-on-staff violence and bullying including terrorist incidents Domestic violence and sexual harassment at work Third party violence Let us now have a look at some of these types and their possible relationships with organizational violence. Staff-on-staff violence and bullying Much early awareness and research on Type 3, worker related violence, has focused on the scenario of the out-of-control bully or the disgruntled individual worker returning to work to take his revenge for perceived injustices. Here again, the focus has been on individual worker pathology and how it can be spotted and the workplace protected rather than looking at why such bullying behavior has occurred or how these perceptions of injustice arose in the first place. Many zero tolerance to violence campaigns may be inappropriate or even abusive when they do not take organizational violence into consideration. 41,42 A number of researchers have also suggested that rapid and ruthless organizational change may be a key trigger in what is often perceived and explained as violence that stems from individual worker pathology. McCarthy and Mayhew comment that... as the economic pressure on most organizations increase over time, supervisors are likely to increasingly translate these externally imposed pressures in a variety of coercive ways on subordinates. 5 Recent research on bullying, undertaken in The Republic of Ireland, further supports this hypothesis. This research found that The bottom line... is that, the main drivers of risk of bullying are related to the institutional context of the victim. 43 Rafferty goes even further and argues that bullying may be a tool chosen by employers to control their staff. ullying has been used as a management tool. The practice of restructuring and downsizing can magnify power imbalances and job insecurities, and encourage an atmosphere of corporate bullying. Changes of management or ownership in business can also lead to the use of bullying tactics to sweep our existing staff. 44 Domestic violence and sexual harassment at work Fisher notes that... there appears to be evidence that domestic violence is a serious problem for women, not only in the home but in the workplace as well. 25 It is likely that some domestic violence spilling over into the workplace is a result of relationships breaking down under the extreme pressures of overwork and related stresses due to organizational demands. Thus, work related pressures could lead not only to reactive abuse of patients but also of family members in the same workplace. Also staff members who are under extreme pressures at work may in turn displace their frustration and anger about work into reactive abuse of their families at home. Engel comments: When the stress builds up at work and they are 58653_CH06_Privitera.indd 9

10 10 Chapter 6: An Emerging Awareness of the Role Organizational Culture unable to confront their aggressors, those closest to them, that is, family members, may inadvertently become targets of victim s frustration, anger and stress. 14 Hearn and Parkin comment that... [t]he analysis of sexual harassment, bullying and physical violence in organizations needs to locate them in the context of managerial practices and organizational power.... Managerial responses are particularly important since they may help to reduce it but can also exacerbate its impact. 3 Thus organizations may be guilty of sins of omission, as well as sins of commission, that stimulate Type 3 domestic violence and sexual harassment at work. In the former situation, organizations may neglect or ignore as aspects of the workplace culture and management that may lead to bullying and harassment or see bullying as a purely interpersonal problem with little or no organizational triggers. As part of the latter, sins of commission, organizations may actively condone or stimulate a climate of violence and abuse in order to further organizational goals. Where systems have failed, organizations should be concerned about the spillover of domestic violence and sexual harassment in the workplace aided by organizational neglect, ignorance, or incompetence and its associated costs such as lost productivity, increased stress, absenteeism, and staff turnover as well as increased healthcare and replacement costs. Third party violence It also could be argued, as outlined previously, that increasing third party violence is also related to Type 4 organizational violence. As rapid and ruthless change occurs within organizations more reactive bullying arises that in turn increases the number of family and colleagues of workers who are exposed to third party violence. Such violence may then flow into the families and colleagues of those who witnessed such violence. What is particularly concerning is that many of the organizations in which Type 4 violence is rife are part of the so called caring professions such as health, education, and social welfare. Legal, Occupational Health & Safety and regulatory bodies may also be guilty of such excesses. 17 Often organizations where you would expect, as an employee or patient, to be treated with dignity and respect are in fact the opposite and hide an economic rationalist agenda under a veneer of service. Such abusive behavior by organizations is coming to the forefront of the current debate about healthcare provision and distribution. In such situations employers and managers might argue that they are not to blame for bad supervisors and related practices, deflecting criticism back onto supervisors and their workers. There is often no recognition or denial at the higher echelons of management regarding how the organizational climate and functioning can allow or foster a violent work environment. Conclusion Thus, from the evidence presented so far, it is apparent that a number of the existing typologies, including the Cal/OSHA classification, should be modified to include this most important category, not specifically noted, of organizational violence against both workers and patients. Type 4 organizational violence should be added, emphasizing the role that an organization can play in triggering or condoning workplace violence. Such Type 4 violence is similar to and overlaps 58653_CH06_Privitera.indd 10

11 References 11 the aforementioned related conceptual frameworks of structural violence, systemic violence, organizational violation, and institutional violence and abuse. In conclusion I would also support erezdivin s suggestion: Organizational factors that promote and contribute to violence need to be considered more. Researchers should more closely study the concept of organizational violence. Organizational cultures that blatantly disregard the recognized elements for promoting a safe workplace are negligent and promote violence. 45 References 1 Diamond M. Administrative Assault: A contemporary psychoanalytic view of violence in the workplace. Am Rev Public Admin.1997;27(3): owie V. Workplace Violence. A paper presented at the Australian Institute of Criminology Conference Crime Against usiness. Melbourne, Australia; Hearn J and Parkin W. Gender, Sexuality and Violence in Organizations. London: Sage Publications; raverman M. The prevention of violence affecting workers: a systems perspective. In: Gill M, Fisher, and owie V. Violence at Work. Portland, Oregon: Willan Publishing; McCarthy P and Mayhew C. Safeguarding the Organization Against ullying and Violence: An International Perspective. New York: Palgrave Macmillan; WorkCover Violence in the Workplace Guide. WorkCover Australia. New South Wales, Sydney; House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts. A safer place to work: Protecting NHS hospital and ambulance staff from violence and aggression. The Stationery Office Limited; International Labour Organisation Sectoral Activities Programme. Code of practice on workplace violence in services sectors and measures to combat this phenomenon. Meeting of Experts to Develop a Code of Practice on Violence and Stress at Work in Services: A Threat to Productivity and Decent Work. International Labour Office, Geneva, Switzerland; WHO Global Consultation on Violence and Health.Violence: a public health priority. Document WHO/ EHA/SPI.POA.2 Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; California Occupational Safety and Health Administration (Cal/OSHA). Cal/OSHA Guidelines for Workplace Security. San Francisco, CA: State of California Department of Industrial Relations, Californian Division of Occupational Safety and Health; owie V. Workplace Violence: A Second Look. Paper presented at the Crime Prevention Conference convened by the Australian Institute of Criminology and the Crime Prevention ranch, Commonwealth Attorney General s Department. Sydney, Australia; Leather P, rady C, Lawrence C, eale D. and Cox T. Work-Related Violence: assessment and Intervention. London: Routledge; owie V. Organizational violence: a trigger for reactive terrorism. In owie V, Fisher, and Cooper CL. Workplace Violence: Issues, Trends and Strategies. Portland, Oregon: Willan Publishing; Engel F. Taming the east. 2nd ed. Montreal, Canada: Ashwell Publishing; owie V. Violence in the Workplace Paper presented at the Australian Institute of Criminology Conference Crime Against usiness. Melbourne, Australia. June owie V. Defining violence at work: a new typology. In: Gill M, Fisher, and owie V, eds. Violence at work: causes, patterns, and prevention. Portland, Oregon: Willan Publishing; urke P. Social Services Staff: Risks They Face and Their Dangerousness to Others. In: Parsloe P, ed. Risk Assessment in Social Care and Social Work Research Highlights in Social Work. London: 36 Jessica Kingsley Publishers; _CH06_Privitera.indd 11

12 12 Chapter 6: An Emerging Awareness of the Role Organizational Culture 18 Kyle M and Hampshire A. The Impact of Working With Survivors of Violence and Abuse. Sydney, Australia: The enevolent Society; The Joint Commission Sentinel Event Alert. ehaviors that undermine a culture of safety. Issue 40; July 09, Accessed at 20 Conlin Shaw M. Nursing home Resident Abuse by Staff. J Elder Abuse and Neglect 1998;9(4): Kohnke M. Nurse Abuse, Nurse Abusers. Nurs Health Care 1981;May: Rylance J. ullying in the Helping Professions. In: McCarthy P, Rylance J, ennett R, and Zimmerman H, eds. ullying from ackyard to oardroom. Sydney, Australia: The Federation Press; Macarthy P. Strategies: etween Managementality and Victim-Mentality in the Pressures of Continuous Change. A paper presented at the conference Conflict & Violence in the Workplace. Canberra, Australia Rayner C, Hoel H, and Cooper C. Workplace ullying: What we know, who is to blame, and what can we do? London: Taylor & Francis, Inc.; Santana SA and Fisher S. Workplace Violence in the USA: are there gender differences? In: Gill M, Fisher, and owie V, eds. Violence at Work: Causes, patterns and prevention. Devon, England: Willan Publishing; Mayhew C. Occupational violence in industrialized countries: types, incidence patterns and at risk groups of workers. In: Gill M, Fisher, and owie V, eds. Violence at Work: Causes, patterns and prevention. Portland, OR: Willan Publishing; Santana SA and Fisher S. Workplace Violence: are there gender differences? In: Gill M, Fisher, and owie V, eds Violence at Work: Causes, patterns and prevention. Portland, OR: Willan Publishing; Hockley C. The silent hell: workplace violence and bullying. Norwood, South Australia: Peacock Publications; Williams L. Organizational Violence; Creating a Prescription for Change. Connecticut: Quorum ooks; Pearson C. Organisations as Targets and Triggers of Aggression and Violence; Framing rational explanation for dramatic organizational deviance. In: acharach S, amberger P, and Sonnenstuhl W, eds. Deviance in Research in the Sociology of Organizations, Vol 15. London: JAI Press, Inc.; owie V. Workplace Violence. WorkCover Trainers Conference. Homebush ay, Australia; Kenny JF. The process of employee violence: the building of a workplace violence. In: Gill M, Fisher, and owie V. Violence at Work: Causes, patterns and prevention. Portland, OR: Willan Publishing; Southerland MD, Collins PA, and Scarborough KE. Workplace Violence: A Continuum from Threat to Death. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson; Cabral R. Policies for developing workplace violence prevention strategies. J Occup Med: State of the Art Reviews 1996;11: O Leary-Kelly AM, Griffin RW, and Glew DJ. Organization-motivated aggression: A research framework. Academy of Manage Rev 1996;21: Perone S. Violence in the Workplace. Australian Institute of Criminology Research and Public Policy Series. No. 22. Canberra, Australia; orum R, Fein R, Vossekuil, and erglund J. Threat assessment: defining an approach for evaluating risk of targeted violence. ehav Sci & Law 1999;17(3): aron SA organizational factors in workplace violence. In: Harrison, ed. Occupational Violence Occupational Medicine State of the Art Reviews. 1996;1(2): Gill ML. Commercial Robbery: Offenders Perspectives on Security and Crime Prevention. London: lackstone Press; _CH06_Privitera.indd 12

13 Additional Reading Folger R and aron R. Violence and hostility at Work: A Model of Reactions to Perceived Injustice. In: Vanderos G and ulato E, eds. Violence on the Job: Identifying Risks and Developing Solutions. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; Paterson, Miller G, and Leadbetter D. eyond zero tolerance a varied response to workplace work place. rit J Nurs 2005;14(15): Paterson, owie V, Miller G, and Leadbetter D. Discourse, Rhetoric and Failure: Zero Tolerance and Violence in Services for People with Mental health needs. Ment Health Prac 2008;11(8): Report of the Taskforce on the Prevention of Workplace ullying. Dignity at Work The challenge of ullying. Dublin: Health and Safety Authority; Rafferty C. ullying at Work. In: McCarthy P, Rylance J, ennett R, and Zimmerman H, eds. ullying from ackyard to oardroom. Sydney, Australia: Federation Press; erezdivin J. Project Demonstrating Excellence. Experts Consensus of OSHA s Guidelines for Workplace Violence. Prevention Program Effectiveness: A Delphi Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Interdisciplinary Studies. Cincinnati, OH: Union Institute and University; Accessed at Additional Reading aron A. Organizational Factors in Workplace Violence: Developing Effective Programs to Reduce Workplace Violence. Occup Med: State of the Art Reviews 1996;11(2): aron R and Neumen JH. Workplace Aggression the iceberg beneath the tip of workplace violence: evidence of its forms, frequency and targets. Public Admin Q 1998;21(4): owie V. Current Trends and Emerging Issues in Workplace Violence. Sec J. 2000;13(3)7 23. oye M and Jones J. Organizational Culture and Employer Counterproductivity. In: Giacalone R and Greenberg J. Antisocial ehavior in Organizations. London: Sage Publications; raverman M. Preventing Workplace Violence, a Guide for Employers and Practitioners. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; raverman M. Prevention of Violence Affecting Workers. A Systems Perspective. Sec J 2000;13(3): Catalano R, Dooley D, Novaco R, Wilson G, and Hough R. Using ECA survey data to examine the effects of job layoffs on violent behaviour. Hosp Community Psych 1995;44: Chappell D and Di Martino V. Violence at Work. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Organisation; Cotton P and Hart P. Occupational Wellbeing and Performance: a review of organisational health research. Aust Psych 2003;38(2): Frost P and Robinson S. The Toxic Handler Organizational Hero and Casualty. Harvard uss Rev 1999;July August: Frost PJ. Toxic Emotions at Work: How Compassionate Managers Handle Pain and Conflict. oston: Harvard usiness School Press; Greenberg L and arling J. Predicting employee aggression against coworkers, subordinates and supervisors: the roles of perceived workplace factors. J Org ehav 1999;20: Harrison R, ed. Occupational medicine: State of the Art Reviews. Violence in the Workplace. Vol. 2. Philadelphia, PA: Hanley & elfus Inc.;1996. Hoel H and Cooper CL. Destructive Conflict and ullying at Work. Manchester School of Management: UMIST; Hopkins M. Developing a framework for understanding patterns of abuse and violence. In: Gill M, Fisher, and owie V, eds. Violence at Work: Causes, patterns and prevention. Portland, OR: Willan Publishing; _CH06_Privitera.indd 13

14 14 Chapter 6: An Emerging Awareness of the Role Organizational Culture Leather P, rady C, Lawrence C, eale D, and Cox T. Work-Related Violence: Assessment and Intervention. London: Routledge; O Leary-Kelly A, Griffin G, and Glew D. Organisation-motivated aggression: a research framework. Acad Manage Rev 1996;21(1): Pearson C. Organisations as Targets and Triggers of Aggression and Violence: Framing Rational Explanations for Dramatic Organisational Deviance. In: acharach S, amberger PA, and Sonnenstuhl WJ, eds. Research in the Sociology of Organisations. JAI Press Inc.; Southerland M, Collins P, and Scarborough K. Workplace Violence: A Continuum from Threat to Death. Ohio: Anderson Publishing Co.; Stanley N, Manthorpe J, and Penhale, eds. Institutional Abuse: Perspectives Across the Life Course. London: Routledge; Stanton-Greenwood A. Managing Violence in Residential Settings. In: Kemshall E and Pritchard J, eds. Good Practice in Working with Violence. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers; Tehrani N. A total quality approach to building a culture of respect. In: Tehrani N, ed. uilding a Culture of Respect: Managing ullying at Work. London: Taylor and Francis; Turnbull J and Paterson. Aggression and Violence: Approaches to effective management. London: Macmillan publications; Vandenos G and ulato E. Violence on the Job: Identifying Risks and Developing Solutions. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. White WL. The Incestuous Workplace: Stress and Distress in the Organizational Family. loomington, IL: Chestnut Health Services; 1997 Williams C. Organizational Violence: Creating a Prescription for Change. London: Quorum ooks; Winefield H, Dollard M, Winefield A. The Role of Supervisors in managing Occupational stress for service professionals. J Occup Health Safety. 2000;16(4): Worksafe. Working Draft Code of Practice for the Prevention of ullying and Violence in the Workplace. Melbourne, Australia; The World Health Organization. Ethical and Safety Recommendations for Domestic Violence Research. Lancet 2002;359: Wright and arling J. The Executioners song : Listening to the downsizers reflect on their experiences. CJAS 1998;14(4): Wright L and Smye M. Corporate Abuse: How Lean and Mean Robs People and Profits. Toronto, Canada: Key Porter ooks; Zapf D. European Research on ullying at Work. In: McCarthy P, Rylance J, ennett R, and Zimmerman H, eds. ullying: From ackyard To oardroom. 2 nd ed. Sydney, Australia: Federation Press; Resources The Institute for Transformative Thought and Learning Dr. Lloyd C. Williams, Consultants. Available at An organizational psychology/clinical psychology, consultation, training, and research firm that focuses on issues of change and transformation for organizations and individuals around the globe that seeks to close the gap between people and systems. Dr Lloyd C. Williams PhD., D.Min. Chief Executive Officer. Professor and Chief Consultant. orgdoctor@ittl.org 58653_CH06_Privitera.indd 14

15 Resources 15 CALM Crisis, Aggression, Limitation, and Management CALM Training offers high-quality, effective services and training programs to enable better organizational and individual responses to challenging behavior, including aggression and violence from users of the human services. ased in Scotland, CALM also provides services in Europe and the USA. CALM Training Services Ltd Vaughan owie & Associates provides a range of aggression and violence prevention and management services including consultancy and expert witness advice. Mr. owie has provided training and consultancy information in all states of Australia, South Africa, Canada, and the United States to thousands of participants. Vaughan has a growing interest in the area of organizational violence and is an Adjunct Fellow at the University of Western Sydney Australia. v.bowie@uws.edu.au Phone: _CH06_Privitera.indd 15

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